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Hindu denominations

Wikipedia contributorsAdapted for Fathomly · View authors
18 min read
Source updated August 20, 2026

Hindu denominations, sampradayas, traditions, movements, and sects are traditions and sub-traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, and so on. The term sampradaya (Sanskrit: सम्प्रदाय, IAST: sampradāya) is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority, and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. Four major traditions are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. These are sometimes referred to as the denominations of Hinduism, and they differ in the primary deity at the centre of each tradition.

A notable feature of Hindu denominations is that they do not deny other concepts of the divine or deity, and often celebrate the other as henotheistic equivalents. The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy, with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".

Although Hinduism contains many denominations and philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority.

01Etymology

The word Hindu is an exonym. This word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means "a large body of water", covering "river, ocean". It was used as the name of the Indus River and also referred to its tributaries. The actual term 'Hindu' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as "a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)". Hindus are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent. In the 18th century, European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus until about the mid-20th century. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s), nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.

Vaishnavism focuses on Vishnu or one of his avatars, such as his form as a human, lion, or boar.
Vaishnavism focuses on Vishnu or one of his avatars, such as his form as a human, lion, or boar.

02Overview of Denominations

Hinduism, as it is commonly known, can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major modern Hindu currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti) and Smartism (five deities treated as the same). These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of various philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such as moksha, dharma, karma, samsara, ethical precepts such as ahimsa, texts (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar, and rites of passage.

Six generic types (McDaniel)

June McDaniel's analysis of emotion (2007) distinguishes six generic types of Hinduism, among many minor ones, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:

Sampradaya

In Hinduism, a sampradaya (Sanskrit: सम्प्रदाय, IAST: sampradāya) is a denomination. These are teaching traditions with autonomous practices and monastic centers, with a guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers. A particular guru lineage is called parampara. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the parampara of a living guru, one belongs to its proper sampradaya.

Shaivism focuses on Shiva
Shaivism focuses on Shiva

03Number of adherents

Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, As of 2020)
Tradition Followers
Vaishnavism 399,526,000
Shaivism 385,423,000
Shaktism 305,643,000
Neo-Hinduism 20,300,000
Reform Hinduism 5,200,000
Cumulative 1,116,092,000

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.

Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University’s Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 399 million Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 385 million Hindus, Shaktism with 305 million Hindus and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million Hindus. In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.

Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly. The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius J. Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati, and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita, and others) and Saraswati, who are important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.

A statue of Akka Mahadevi, a famous Lingayat saint, installed at her birthplace, Udathadi
A statue of Akka Mahadevi, a famous Lingayat saint, installed at her birthplace, Udathadi

04Main denominations

Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism is a devotional stream of Hinduism that worships the god Vishnu as the Supreme Lord (Svayam Bhagavan). In addition to Vishnu, adherents worship Vishnu's ten incarnations (i.e., the Dashavatara). The two most-worshipped incarnations of Vishnu are Krishna, especially within Krishnaism, and Rama, whose stories are told in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, respectively. The adherents of Vaishnavism are generally non-ascetic, monastic, and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting. Vaishnavism is characterised by diverse adherence to a number of saints, temples, and scriptures. Among historical Vishnuism are the Bhagavata, Pancharatra, and Vaikhanasa traditions.

The major extant Vaishnava sampradayas include:

Minor and regional Vaishnavite schools and the principal acharyas connected with them are:

Shaivism

Shaivas or Shaivites are those who primarily worship Shiva as the supreme god, both immanent and transcendent. Shaivism embraces at the same time monism (specifically nondualism) and dualism. To Shaivites, Shiva is both with and without form; he is the Supreme Dancer, Nataraja; and is linga, without beginning or end. Shiva is sometimes depicted as the fierce god Bhairava. Shaivites are more attracted to asceticism than devotees of other Hindu sects and may be found wandering India with ashen faces, performing self-purification rituals. They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.

The major schools of Shaivism include:

Other branches:

  • Aaiyyanism is a religion claiming to be a form of pure Dravidian Hinduism and identifying as a Shaivite branch.

Shaktism

Shaktas worship the Mother Goddess as Shakti, in different forms. These forms may include Kali, Parvati, Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati. The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess Devi is called Shaktism. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the supreme power of the universe. Devi is often depicted as Parvati (the consort of Shiva) or as Lakshmi (the consort of Vishnu). She is also depicted in other manifestations, such as the protective Durga or the violent Kali. Shaktism is closely related to Tantric Hinduism, which teaches rituals and practices for the purification of the mind and body.

Animal sacrifice of cockerels, goats, and, to a lesser extent, water buffaloes is practiced by Shakta devotees, mainly at temples of goddesses such as Bhavani or Kali.

The main traditions are:

The Goddess-centric traditions within Kashmir Shaivism are Trika and Kubjika.

Smartism

Smartas treat all deities as the same, and their temples include five deities (Pancopasana) or Panchadevata as personal, saguna (divine with form) manifestations of the nirguna (divine without form) Absolute, Brahman. The nature of God is a matter of individual choice, since different manifestations of God are held to be equivalent. It is nonsectarian as it encourages the worship of any personal god along with others such as Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, and Surya.

The Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are the saguna brahman (the Brahman with attributes) and nirguna brahman (the Brahman without attributes). The nirguna Brahman is the unchanging Reality, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing this nirguna Brahman. In this tradition, the concept of the saguna Brahman is considered to be a useful symbolism and means for those who are still on their spiritual journey. However, the saguna concept is abandoned by the fully enlightened once they realize the identity of their own soul with that of the nirguna Brahman. A Smarta may choose any saguna deity (istadevata) such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya, Ganesha or any other, and this is viewed in Smarta Tradition as an interim step towards meditating on Om and the true nature of the supreme reality, thereby realizing the nirguna Brahman and its equivalence to one's own Atman, as in Advaita Vedanta.

The movement is credited to Shankara, who is regarded as the greatest teacher and reformer of the Smartas. According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition. The Sringeri Sharada Peetham in Karnataka, believed by its members to have been founded by Shankara, is still the centre of the Smarta sect for its followers. Smartas follow four other major Mathas, namely, Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Puri Govardhan Math, Dwaraka Sharada Peetham, and Jyotir Muth. All Mathas are headed by Sankaracharyas.

The traditions are:

Panchayatana puja, also known as Pancha Devi Deva Puja, is a system of puja (worship) within the Smarta sampradaya.

Overlap

Halbfass states that, although traditions such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations", there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives" of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon". It is common to find Hindus revering Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti, and celebrating festivals related to them at different times of the year. Temples often feature more than one, and Hinduism is better understood as a polycentric theosophy that leaves the choice of deity and ideas to the individual.

The key concepts and practices of the four major denominations of Hinduism can be compared as follows:

Comparison of four major traditions of Hinduism
Shaiva TraditionsVaishnava TraditionsShakti TraditionsSmarta Traditions Srauta TraditionsReferences
Scriptural authorityVedas, Upanishads and AgamasVedas, Upanishads and AgamasVedas, Upanishads and AgamasVedas and Upanishads Vedas
Supreme deityGod ShivaGod VishnuGoddess DeviNone None
CreatorShivaVishnuDeviBrahman principle Brahman principle
AvatarMajorKey conceptSignificantMinor Minor
Monastic lifeRecommendsAcceptsAcceptsRecommends Accepts (with exceptions)
Rituals, BhaktiAffirmsAffirmsAffirmsOptional Affirms
Ahimsa and VegetarianismRecommends, OptionalAffirmsOptionalAffirms except for sacrificial occasions Affirms except for sacrificial occasions
Free will, Maya, KarmaAffirmsAffirmsAffirmsAffirms Affirms
MetaphysicsBrahman (Shiva), Atman (Soul, Self)Brahman (Vishnu), AtmanBrahman (Devi), AtmanBrahman, Atman Brahman, Atman,

Karma, Dharma
Epistemology
(Pramana)		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony
4. Self-evident		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and analogy
4. Postulation, derivation
5. Negative/cognitive proof
6. Reliable testimony		 1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and analogy
4. Postulation, derivation
5. Negative/cognitive proof
6. Reliable testimony
PhilosophyDvaita, qualified advaita, advaitaDvaita, qualified advaita, advaitaShakti-advaitaAdvaita Purva Mimamsa
Salvation
(Soteriology)		Jivanmukta,
Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana		Videhamukti, Yoga,
champions householder life		Bhakti, Tantra, YogaJivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga,
champions monastic life		 Videhamukti, Yoga,

Dharmic Karma, champions householder life||

05Other denominations

Suryaism / Saurism

The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in the Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE. The Konark Sun Temple was built in the mid-13th century. During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu-Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink. The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th centuries CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar, Jharkhand, and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar, Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form of Chhath Puja (or Chhath Vrat) which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.

Ganapatism

Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which Ganesha is worshipped as the main form of the saguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important in Maharashtra.

Indonesian Hinduism

Hinduism dominated the islands of Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted to Islam. Only the Balinese people, who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.

The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymous Indonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.

Shrautism

Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna).

Kaumaram

Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where Kartikeya is worshipped as the Supreme God. The worshippers of Kartikeya are called Kaumaras.

Dattatreya Sampradaya

Dattatreya Sampradaya is a Hindu denomination associated with the worship of Dattatreya as the supreme god. This denomination found in Indian states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttarakhand. Dattatreya is often considered as an avatara of three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, collectively known as the Trimurti. Main traditions linked with Dattatreya Sampradaya are:

Sant Mat

The Sant Mat was a group of reformer poet-sants and their adherents within Hinduism during the 14th-17th centuries who had desire for religious pluralism and non-ritualistic spirituality. Due to Kabir's affiliation with Vaishnavite Ramanandi Sampradaya and certain aspects of the creed, the Sant Mat is sometimes seen as part of Vaishnavism. Among its living traditions are:

Newer movements

The Hindu new religious movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:

Sarnaism

Sarna are sacred groves in the Indian religious traditions of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region in the states of Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam, and Chhattisgarh. Followers of these rituals primarily belong to the Munda, Bhumij, Kharia, Baiga, Ho, Kurukh, and Santal. According to local belief, a Gram deoti or village deity resides in the sarna, where sacrifice is offered twice a year. Their belief system is called "Sarnaism", "Sarna Dharma" or "Religion of the Holy Woods".

Kiratism

The practice is also known as Kirat Veda, Kirat-Ko Veda or Kirat Ko Ved. According to some scholars, such as Tom Woodhatch, it is shamanism, animistic religion or blend of shamanism, animism (e.g., ancestor worshiping of Yuma Sammang/Tagera Ningwaphumang and Paruhang/Sumnima), and Shaivism.

Shaktism is a Goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism. From left: Parvati/Durga, Kali and Lakshmi
Shaktism is a Goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism. From left: Parvati/Durga, Kali and Lakshmi

07Cross-denominational influences

Bhakti movement

The Bhakti movement was a theistic devotional trend that originated in the seventh-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE. The Bhakti movement regionally developed as Hindu denominations around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism. The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta. Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.

As part of the legacy of the Alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical traditions (sampradayas) have developed at the later stages.

Philosophical schools

Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six āstika (Sanskrit: आस्तिक "orthodox") schools of thought, or darśanam (दर्शनम्, "view"), which accept the Vedas as the supreme revealed scriptures. The schools are:

  1. Samkhya, a non-theistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter.
  2. Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation, contemplation and liberation.
  3. Nyaya or logic, which explores sources of knowledge. The foundational text of this school is the Nyāya Sūtras.
  4. Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism.
  5. Mimāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy.
  6. Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the 'Jnan' (knowledge) 'Kanda' (section).

The nāstika/heterodox schools are (in chronological order):

  1. Cārvāka
  2. Jainism
  3. Ājīvika
  4. Buddhism
  5. Ajñana

However, medieval philosophers like Vidyāraṇya classified Indian philosophy into sixteen schools, where schools belonging to Shaiva, Pāṇini, and Raseśvara thought are included with others. The three Vedantic schools, Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita (which had emerged as distinct schools by then), are classified separately.

In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages and modern times, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy, as follows:

Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

Yoga varieties

Watch videos about Hindu denominationsExplainers and documentaries on YouTube (opens in a new tab)

Sources and credits

This article is adapted from the Wikipedia article “Hindu denominations”, written by its contributors and licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. Fathomly has changed the layout, removed citation markers, navigation and maintenance notices, and adjusted punctuation. This adapted version is shared under the same license. For references, see the original article.

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